Stereotypes And The Tourist Role Tourism Essay

Stereotypes And The Tourist Role Tourism Essay Introduction of tourism industry The hospitality and tourism industry is the worlds largest industry that has been growing significantly in the last few years. The noteworthy augmentation of the industry is attributed to many factors such as development of easy modes of transportation, changing demands of the people to visit various destination places, increasing need for exploring adventurous and artistic places worldwide and creation of tourist destinations in numerous countries for making the tourism industry an integral part of their economies (Bender, Gidlow Fisher, 2013; Wang, 1999). Since the tourism industry has gained huge importance, it has become a major area of study of the leading scholarly researchers. These specialists are doing extensive studies on the industry, the factors impacting its performance and the impact of tourist role on the destination images created by the tourism authorities in each country (Lim, 2007; Prentice, 2004). In order to study various aspects of the tourism industry, one school of thought is focussing on the socio-demographic characteristics and needs related to the specific styles of vacations or tourist roles (Cohen, 1974; Kim, 2009; McCabe, 2005). For instance, Yiannakis and Gibson (1999), cited by Nicoletta and Servidio (2012), established that the tourist roles preference is linked to the place where a person lives in his/her adult life. On the other hand, second school of thought is analysis the impact of stereotyping of tourist role on the discriminatory practices that are created by the authorities in the destination places (Lee, Law Murphy, 2011; Jacobsen et al., 2012). Hence, there is an enormous collection of work on the tourism industry, tourist role and the challenges faced by the players of the industry. Contribution of researchers in tourist studies In order to study the tourist role in the tourism industry, the researchers have utilised the anthropology study to generate an extensive body of theory that can provide assistance in defining and delimiting the object of study i.e. tourist. The classical theorists such as Cohen (1979), Horne (1992), Kadt (2001), Pearce (1982) and Smith (1978), cited by Heimtun (2007), have ascertained the relationship that exists between guests and hosts which means that they are created by developing a series of dichotomies such as locals/foreigners, stability/transience, production/consumption and work/leisure. Although these dichotomies do exist in the sector but it is important to conceptualize the role of tourist that has been mainly treated by the researchers in a negative way (Caru Cova, 2003; Frankin, 2003); the primary purpose is to make some beneficial contributions can be made in the field of research. The foremost aim of the studies related to tourists is not to defend them and close the eyes towards the negative aspects of the tourism but it should also highlight the positive aspects of the tourism and address the challenges that are encountered by the tourists during their visits in the destination places (Selstad, 2012). Various roles of tourist as depicted by researchers For decades, the tourists have been portrayed as the second-class citizens (Burner, 2001); this feeling of being considered as a dumb or unimportant person has been impacting the treatment of tourists worldwide. According to Jack and Phipps (2005), the local residents at destination places used to believe that tourists activities are lazy, dumb and fatuous. However, these conventional views about tourist behaviours have been challenged and many researchers have successfully revamped the tourist roles in the destination places and the shift has been made on studying the tourist experience (Dann, 2000). Uriely (2005) gave a review on the conceptual development of an excellent tourist experience that has received huge appreciation by the concerned authorities in the tourism industry. The researcher identified four developmental phases of the tourist roles: The tourism should be viewed as a separate activity from everyday life routine. There is a shift from the portrayal of tourists as homogenous people as a general form to multiplication of the depictions that are captured while tourism experience. A shift in focus for the objects displayed by the industry towards the negotiation of meanings in subjective way for determining the level of experience. A significant move from the decisive and contradictory academic information flow such as experience as moments of truths to harmonizing and virtual interpretations. The main problem in theories about the experience of tourist was that they lack focus on the term tourist role. Hence, the modern theorists started studying the tourist attitudes and behaviours that were depicted by their experiences in the destination places along with the stereotypes that were created among the tourist groups belonging to similar ethnic groups, religion, race, culture and etc. (Iverson, 2010). Stereotyping and prejudiced views of tourist role Since many researchers classified the tourist roles on the basis of their analysis, they created certain stereotypes about the tourist roles so that the tourist studies can be flourished. For instance, Cohen (1979) classified the tourist roles into four categories i.e. the explorer, the individual mass tourist, the drifter and the organised mass tourist. Jafari (2003) emphasised that the better classification of tourist roles can be stereotyped by adding behavioural characteristics such as takes photos, visits well-known places, pleasantly purchases souvenirs, tries local food, stays for some in one location and explores numerous destinations privately. From the studies of contemporary researchers, it is evident that they defined the role of tourists in accordance to their purpose of tourism; when there was increased focus on the tourism, there was less emphasis on treating tourist an individual. Cohen (1979) classified tourists into four broad groups such as recreational type, experimental type, existential type and experiential type. In each mode of tourism, the tourist wants to have some time off from everyday routine so that the energy can be revitalised and explore the culture and aesthetic offerings of the other countries that have distinctive norms, values and societies (Chok, Mcbeth Warren, 2007). The postmodern theorists have emphasised that the tourist roles have to be studied from the negotiated and subjective characteristics rather than rigid and reductionist perspectives that were done by contemporary researchers; their entire focus is on the tourist roles, meanings, attitudes and experiences. The recent terminology coined by Jacobsen and Munar (2012) is anti-tourist attitude which shows that the tourists want to be viewed in the role of tourist but want to keep a power distance when in this role. According to these researchers, the conception of anti-tourist role seems to challenge the tourists sense of individuality and identity; the role distance becomes of utmost importance to them as they want to maintain a feeling that each individual has different experience that can be entirely distinctive from all other players and occupants of the role (Litvin, Goldsmith Pam, 2008). It is believed that each tourist will have different sense of feelings in varying situations as each one of them has distinctive values, beliefs, preferences, attitudes and behaviours (Yang Wall, 2009). Most of the researchers have challenged the concept of stereotyping the tourist role on the basis of cultural differences or nationality because sometimes they often lead to misconceptions about tourist groups. For instance, it is believed that Japanese people cannot speak English and the tourist guide has to provide them assistance when communicating among the local residents; it is untrue in many situations as there are many Japanese people who can easily communicate in English. Likewise, there is a belief that Asian people like to eat their food items and dont prefer to try out the local food items of the destination place; it is a myth as well because there are many people who are looking forward to try out the new food items of the destination place (Selstad, 2012). Hence, the tourist roles should not be confined to the limited set of observations as every tourist has distinctive features and prefers to be treated in accordance to the individual personality possessed by the person. Rethinking the tourist role With the robust growth and development in the field of Internet, the tourist roles have changed to a great extent as the tourists have become information seekers and proficient in developing their own travelling packages. As they have easy access to the extensive range of details about various destination places, they ensure that they select the places in accordance to their own choices so that they have a marvellous time during their complete tourism (Selstad, 2012). The concerned authorities have to ensure that they even make proper use of the advertising mediums so that right message is communicated to the tourists. One key point that has to be given adequate attention is that the tourists should be treated as individual beings and they should be presented many alternatives so that they can have a sensational travelling experience. Conclusion From the studies of a wide array of theorists and researchers, it is evident that the tourist roles cannot be stereotyped as the tourists prefer to be treated as distinguished individuals and they avoid being viewed as aliens or strangers in the destination places. The tourism industries have to ensure that they offer the most astonishing experience to the visitors and offer them unlimited opportunities for carrying out their activities within the ethical boundaries of the country in accordance to the Law. Hence, the stereotypes have immense impact on the tourist role and it should be changed so that the tourists are willing to visit the place on repetitive basis and any conflicts in their views about tourism in the respective place are tackled properly.

The Philosophy of Religion

The Philosophy of Religion INTRODUCTION Philosophy refers to the study of the meaning of existence, thought, and knowledge (Blackburn, 1996). One prevailing view amongst philosophers is that philosophy is essentially a method of enquiry, a means of understanding the world, and human nature. Within this domain emerged a philosophy of science, a view that the world can be understood through quantification and experimentation, characterised by rigour, control, objectivity, and replication (Krige Dominique, 2003). It has evolved over time, shifting away from an emphasis on theory falsification (scientific realism) towards a requirement for explanation and prediction. Fundamental to science is positivist philosophy, the idea that only phenomena which can be measured and quantified are worthy of scientific inquiry (LeGouis, 1997). Thus, phenomena such a God, spirits, and the ‘afterlife’ aren’t worth studying. Religion refers to a set of commonly held beliefs and customs, concerned with supernatural phenomena , notably the existence of a divinity, god, or higher ‘power’ or ‘entity’ (Lindbeck, 1984; Jones, 2005). It represents a particular world view characterised by faith, spirituality, holiness, doctrine, and reverence, and often shapes a persons entire life, reasoning, and culture. Thus, it generally follows from this that science, and its associated philosophies, are generally incompatible with religion. But what are the precise sources of this tension? SOURCES OF TENSION Origin of Life Where did life come from? Evolutionary theorists, notably Charles Darwin, argued that species evolve over millennia through a process of ‘natural selection’, whereby only the fittest are able to secure mates, reproduce, and hence ensure the survival of their particular genetic footprint: the weak, by contrast are unable to compete, and ultimately become extinct, in a kind of evolutionary ‘dead-end’ (Darwin, 1852, 1869, 1872). Scientists take the view that life may have emerged ‘spontaneously’, through purely accidental but favourable biological conditions, whereby basic molecules notably amino acids combined to form more complex elements, like carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia (Martin Russell, 2002; Hazen, 2005). These biochemical events were triggered accidentally, for example by random cosmic events (e.g. meteorite/comet activity, hot-springs), as the earth formed (Russell, et al, 1988; Fernando Rowe, 2007). Religion offers a completely dif ferent account. God or some other deity, created life (Dawkins, 2006)! For example, in Christianity the earth was created by God, in six days. Scientists completely reject this view however (Dawkins, 2006). In science, notably astronomy and nuclear physics, the earth and universe are the result of a ‘big bang’, whereby all the matter we observe around us today emerged suddenly in a rapidly expanding fiery explosion of matter emanating from a single point (Peacock, 1999). Before the big bang, there was nothing, no time or matter. Although science fails to account for events preceding the ‘big bang’, the notion that it may be ‘created’ by a supernatural entity is regarded with scepticism. Faith A major feature of religious beliefs is faith (Harris, 2006). To have faith is to have trust in an appropriate divinity, notably God, and also to believe in this divinity or deity without question or reason. So, for example, in Judaism there is considerable emphasis on the notion of Emunah (faith), Christians view faith as an essential aspect of worship, while Muslims have faith – known as Iman – in the prophet Mohammed and his teachings. Faith is also an important element in Buddhism, where it is known as Saddha, meaning to have a conviction in or be determined about something. The requirement that one believes in God without asking any questions, or requesting a reason or justification is utter essential in most religions. It means that even when there is evidence to the contrary, such as an apparent failure of God to answer a prayer, the belief and trust in the divinity must be unshaken. In science by contrast, faith is a highly undesirable and hence discouraged conc ept (Godfrey-Smith, 2003). It is virtually non existent amongst scientists. In medical science for example, rather than having faith the effectiveness of a new treatment procedure, there is a universal requirement for evidence-based practice (Tonelli, 2001). Faith is also anathema amongst philosophers who believe in rational thought, the notion that any position or argument must be justified, that is, backed up by reason or evidence (Bonjour, 1998). The truth, rather than been accepted unquestioningly according to religious teachings, is entirely based on the soundness of reasoning or evidence that accompanies it (Kenny, 1986). Doctrine Religion is governed by doctrine, a set of shared beliefs, faiths, teachings, guidelines, and practices, that people adhere to unquestioningly, and which dictate how they live their lives. Thus, for example, religious dogma promoted by the Christian church, such as Christian Trinity (God is one entity simultaneously incorporating the father, the son, and the Holy Spirit) (McGrath, 1987), and virgin birth (the birth of a child by a woman who is a virgin, as in the case of Mary, mother of Jesus) (Spong, 1994) are examples of religious doctrine. By contrast, science and philosophy aren’t governed by any particular doctrine, other than ethical principles which govern research and practice (Godfrey-Smith, 2003). Admittedly ‘teachings’, or ‘movement’s do exist in science and philosophy, in the form of ‘schools of thought’ promoting one particular way of understanding phenomena. Good examples in philosophy are rationalism, empiricism, realism an d psychoanalysis. In science, there is for example theory or relativity in physics, or the biopsychosocial model perspective in health, medical, and behavioural science (Borrell-Carrio et al, 2004). However, philosophers and scientists aren’t required to adhere to any particular set of principles. In general, scientific movements gain greater acceptability as the body of supporting empirical evidence expands (Krige Dominique, 2003). However, scientists are free to pick and choose what school of thought they belong to, without violating their scientific of ethical principles. Quantification Positivist philosophy, a movement developed by the great philosopher Auguste Comte (Pickering, 1993), and on which much of modern scientific experimentation is based, promotes the notion that any phenomena which cannot be observed, measured, and quantified, isn’t worthy of scientific study (LeGouis, 1997). This ‘scientific ideology’, which implies that all true knowledge is scientific and quantifiable, is incompatible with religion, in which true knowledge is divine in nature, and based on holy scriptures (Boyer, 2001). Truth in religion is arguably unquantifiable – one cannot measure the existence of God, the effectiveness of prayer, the strength of ones faith, or the presence of the Holy Spirit, for example. Scientists generally avoid investigating religion and religious concepts, much in the same way as they side-step researching issues like UFO citings, and abductions: scientific journals with prioritise research papers on religion are few and far betwe en (Potter, 2005), reflecting the positivist attitude that anything which can’t be measured doesn’t represent the truth. Consider the practice of medical science in the UK. The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) is a body set up in England and Wales, in 1999, to determine what medical treatments are considered worthwhile. Decisions are based primarily on empirical (scientific) evidence, and economic cost-effectiveness analyses (Rawlings Culyer, 2004). Alternative therapies with religious underpinnings rarely receive approval, largely due to the lack of empirical verification (Franck et al, 2007). Objectivity In science there is an emphasis on objectivity, an ability to remain unbiased. This relates directly to the scientific requirement for verifiability and replicability. By suppressing personal feelings, biases, preferences, and prejudices, and adhering strictly to standard protocol, the work of one scientist can be evaluated and reproduced by another scientist, completely independently (Godfrey-Smith, 2003). Objectivity also has philosophical underpinnings, dating back to the nineteenth century with renowned philosophers like Plato, Gottlob Frege, and Immanuel Kant (Rorty, 1991). The basic philosophy is that the truth, knowledge, and reality must exist independent of the mind. Plato for example made a specific distinction between objective knowledge and personal opinion, the latter denoting an unacceptable subjectivity that does not offer an accurate description of reality (Taylor, 2001). In religion, the emphasis is on getting physically, emotionally, and spiritually proximal to ones divinity, rather than maintaining an intellectual distance (Boyer, 2001). Indeed, people are encouraged to wholly immerse themselves in their religions, such that it dictates their entire lifestyle (Boyer, 2001). Thus, the distinction between religion and culture often becomes blurred, such that a religion (e.g. Judaism) becomes highly intertwined with culture (e.g. being an Israeli) (Norris Inglehart, 2007). Religion is generally ingrained in a person’s personal belief system. Thus, whereas a scientist tries to separate his personal views from scientific knowledge, in religion, personal opinions and religious teachings merge. Authority Whereas in most religions authority is solely and ultimately in the hands of a transcendent and supernatural deity, God, or divinity, in science, scientists themselves are their own authority. They are answerable to no-one (other than the particular ethical standards of the professional bodies to which they belong), and may publish their findings at will, helping to expand, and shape, knowledge, reasoning, and general philosophy in their particular field. For this reason, scientists (especially medical doctors) are often accused of ‘playing God’ by religious activists or sympathisers (Hayles, 1999; Stock, 2002), especially with regards to issues like abortion, cloning, and morality. This is known as the transhumanism and hubris argument (Fukuyama, 2004). Philosophers are also their own authority. They take credit and criticism for and whatever philosophy they advocate. Thus, the likes of Plato, Kant, and other greater philosophers are their own authority. In religion by contrast, God or some other deity is the one sole authority, and all worshipers are ultimately answerable to this divinity (Lindbeck, 1984). Religious leaders, such as Imams, Priests, Vicars, and Buddha’s, are merely ‘messengers’ whose primary role is to spread religious teachings: they are ultimately answerable to God, any divine authority they have is extremely limited. So, for example, it can be argued that a Pentecostal priest who purports to execute miracles on particular members of his congregation is in fact merely acting on behalf of God, serving as a ‘channel’ through which God performs his miracles. JUSTIFICATION Are the tensions between religion, science, and philosophy justified? Several arguments are presented below which suggest that the answer to this question is an unequivocal ‘no’. Firstly, the idea promoted by positivist philosophy, and hence modern day science, that religion and religious subjects can’t be studied scientifically is incorrect. Although religious concepts (e.g. God, faith, sin, worship) are generally unobservable, and hence difficult to quantify, scientists do study religion, using scientific methods (e.g. Smith et al, 2003; Myers, 2007). Furthermore, religion offers quantifiable and testable predictions that make it amenable to scientific research. For example, the notion that God exists and/or answers ones prayers can easily be measured and evaluated scientifically (Dawkins, 2006). Secondly, the supposed tension between religion and science appears odd given that science actually emerged from amongst Christians, who were seeking new ways of seekin g out the ‘truth’ about the world, and humanity (Jaki, 1996). Thus, the very scientists and philosophers who embraced notions such as quantification, objectivity, and experimentation were themselves God worshipers, imbued with faith, and adhering strictly to religious doctrine (Godfrey-Smith, 2003). Thus, despite their devotion to scriptures as their main source of truth about reality, many religions allow for the application of scientific theories to everyday problems (Migliore, 2004). So, for example, there is no apparent contradiction if a clergy advices a sick member of his congregation to seek medical treatment, in addition to relying on their faith and asking for divine intervention. Thirdly, science, philosophy, and religion, do actually converge in certain areas, notably metaphysics and cosmology. Metaphysics refers to a philosophical movement concerned with understanding the meaning of reality, existence, and the world (Lowe, 2002; Loux, 2006). It addresses issues beyond the physical world, including questions such as ‘what is reality’, ‘why are we here?’, ‘does God exist’, and ‘Is there a soul?’ Metaphysicists have historically considered these legitimate scientific questions, especially prior to the eighteenth century before the development of modern scientific concepts such as empiricism, and quantification (Lowe, 2002). Yet, it is these very questions that religion and religious teachings are often concerned with. One of the best known fields of metaphysics is theology, the study of God (Migliore, 2004)! The word ‘theology’ means the ‘study of divine things’. In Europe, the Chris tian church, notably the Protestant Church and Roman Catholic Church trains their ministers in Christian theology, for example in Seminaries, or even universities (Woods, 2005). Thus, this begs the question that if religion and science are so incompatible, why would religions, for example Christianity, support academic study and scientific inquiry amongst its clergy? All in all it can be argued that there is no qualitative distinction between religion, and the philosophy of metaphysics (Hazen, 2005). Granted, the answers provided by each perspective may differ wildly. Indeed, certain questions (e.g. ‘does God exist?’) may be inappropriate in many religions. Nevertheless, the overlap between religion, theology, and metaphysics seems obvious (Hazen, 2005). Cosmology refers to the scientific (mathematical) study of the universe, and the role of humanity in it (Hawley Katerine, 1998). Thus, by definition, cosmology and religion are concerned with the same subject matter. C osmology appears to occupy a position between religion and modern science, posing arguments about the relationship between God, humanity, and the physical universe. A sub-branch of cosmology, known as religious cosmology specifically aims at explaining and understanding the universe based, in part, on religious teachings (Hetherington, 1993). Many religious cosmologists accept that God created the universe, but yet recognize the findings of modern science, notably Astrophysics, that the universe was created in the ‘Big Bang’ for example. These two positions aren’t necessarily incompatible; God may be considered to have created the Big Bang! CONCLUSION This essay considers the tension between religion, science, and philosophy, and whether this conflict is justified. Substantial differences exist between religion and science/philosophy: for example, religious notions like faith, God, and unquestioning adherence, are generally incompatible with classic scientific tenets. Similarly, traditional scientific requirements like quantification, and philosophical concepts such as rationality and empiricism, don’t ‘fit’ well with religious practice. Yet, perhaps the magnitude of these differences may be exaggerated. Religion, philosophy, and science, in fact overlap considerably, and the best evidence for this lies in the existence of fields like metaphysics, cosmology, religious cosmology, and theology. These disciplines generally involve scientific inquiry, but yet address religious concepts, and are studied by religious clergy, ministers, and other religious leaders. All in all, any conflict between religion and science /philosophy may be more myth than reality. REFERENCE Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996) The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford, Oxford University Press. Bonjour, L. (1998) In Defense of Pure Reason. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Borrell-Carrio, F., Suchman, A.L. Epstein, M.D. (2004) The Biopsychosocial Model 25 Years Later: Principles, Practice, and Scientific Inquiry. Annals of Family Medicine, 2, pp.576-582. Boyer, P. (2001) Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought. New York: Basic Books. Darwin, C. (1859, 1861, 1872) On the Origin of Specifies by Means of Natural Selection, of the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (1st edition). London: John Murray. Dawkins, R. (2006) Why there almost certainly is no God. The Huffington Post, August 18. Fernando CT Rowe, J (2007). Natural selection in chemical evolution. Journal of Theoretical Biology 247, pp.152-67. Fukuyama, F. (2004) The Worlds Most Dangerous Ideas [online] in Foreign Policy. http://www.mywire.com/pubs/ForeignPolicy/2004/09/01/564801?page=4 [Accessed August 16 2007]. Franck, L., Chantler, C. Dixon, M. (2007) Should NICE evaluate complementary and alternative medicine? British Medical Journal, 334, p.506. Godfrey-Smith, P. (2003) Theory and reality: an introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Science and its Conceptual Foundations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Harris, S (2006) Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason. Blackstone AudioBooks. Hawley, J.F. Katerine A.H. (1998) Foundations of Modern Cosmology. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Hayles, N.K. (1999). How We Became Posthuman. University of Chicago Press Hazen, RM. (Dec 2005) Genesis: The Scientific Quest for Life’s Origins. Joseph Henry Press Hetherington, N.S. (1993) Cosmology: Historical, Literary, Philosophical, Religious, and Scientific Perspectives. New York: Garland Publishing. Jaki, S. (1996) Bible and Science. Christendom Press. Jones, L. (ed) (2005) Encyclopaedia of Religion. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan. Kenny, A. (1986) Rationalism, Empiricism and Idealism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Krige, J. Dominique, P. (eds) (2003) Science in the Twentieth Century. Routledge. LeGouis, C. (1997). Positivism and Imagination: Scientism and Its Limits in Emile Hennequin, Wilhelm Scherer and Dmitril Pisarev. London: Bucknell University Press. Lindbeck, G.A. (1984) Nature of Doctrine. Louisville: John Knox Press. Lowe, E. J. (2002). A Survey of Metaphysics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Loux, M. J. (2006). Metaphysics: A Contemporary Introduction (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. Martin, W. Russell M.J. (2002). On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: Biological Sciences 358, pp.59-85. McGrath, A.E. (1987) Understanding the Trinity. Eastbourne, UK: Kingsway Publications Migliore, D.L. (2004) Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Myers, D. (2007) The Science of Subjective Well-being. Guildford Press. Norris, P. Inglehart, R. (2007) Sacred and Secular, Religion and Politics Worldwide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Peacock, J. (1999). Cosmological Physics. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press. Pickering, M. (1993) Auguste Comte: An Intellectual Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Potter, R.L. (2005) Religious themes in medical journals. Journal of Religion and Health, 32, pp.217-222. Rawlins MD Culyer AJ (2004) National Institute for Clinical Excellence and its value judgements. British Medical Journal, 329, pp.224-227. Rorty, R. (1991) Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Russell MJ, Hall AJ, Cairns-Smith AG. Braterman PS (1988). Submarine hot springs and the origin of life. Nature 336, p.117. Spong, J.S. (1994) Born of a Woman: A Bishop Rethinks the Virgin Birth. San Francisco: Harper Collins. Stock, G. (2002). Redesigning Humans: Choosing our Genes, Changing our Future. Mariner Books Taylor, A.E. (2001). Plato: The Man and his Work. Courier Dover Publications Tonelli, MR. (2001) The limits of evidence-based medicine. Respiratory Care, 46, pp.1435-1440. Woods, J.T. (2005). How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization. Regnery Publishing.

Is Global Warming a Hoax? Essay -- environmental issues, climate change

Is global warming a hoax? Anyone who listens to the news for sure very often comes across a news anchor stating how the Earth’s climate is changing. Global warming is a term that creates fear among many. But with all the open and uncensored media out there how do we know that this is not a lie or cover-up? So what does global warming actually mean and is it really true? If global warming is such a big deal why are we taking our time to act? The climate of the Earth has been changing way before the industrialization era began; way before we started to dig up fossil fuel, burn it and put carbon into the air. So if this has been happening for a long time, what is the huge fuss about it? Many believe this is just a fuss. Looking at the financial perspective, many beneficiaries have popped up due to the investment in green-friendly materials. One of the notable people who made sky rocketing financial gains after his investment within the green-industry riches is Al Gore, an American politician, advocate and philanthropist, who was the 45th Vice President of the United States, under President Bill Clinton. Larry Bell states: In 2004, Gore co-founded London-based Generation Investment Management (GIM) with Senator Feinstein’s husband, former Goldman Sachs Group, Inc. Managing Director David Blood to invest money in businesses that were â€Å"going green†. Public filings show that GIM raised profits of nearly $218 million between 2008 and 2011, split among 26 partners. By 2008 Gore was able to put together $35 million into hedge funds and private partnerships through Capricorn Investment Group, a Palo Alto company founded by his Canadian billionaire buddy Jeffrey Skoll, the first president of EBay Inc (Bell). One main blow comes from the co... ...ources Defense Council (NRDC), â€Å"Four global warming impacts alone—hurricane damage, real estate losses, energy costs, and water costs—will come with a price tag of 1.8 percent of U.S. GDP, or almost $1.9 trillion annually (in today’s dollars) by 2100† (Akerman 4). Climate change or global warming is neither today’s nor tomorrow’s problem. It is a long term problem that has been affecting us, is affecting us, and at an even much higher rate will affect us. Works Cited Ackerman, Frank, and Elizabeth A. Station. â€Å"The cost of Climate Change: What We’ll Pay if Global Warming Continues Unchecked.† nrdc.org. Natural Resources Defense Council, May 2008. Web. 26 April 2014. Bell, Larry. â€Å"The Greening of Gore’s Bank Account.† Forbes. 21 May 2013. Web. 25 April 2014. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Future Climate Change. Epa.gov. n.d. Web. 25 April 2014.

Gabriel Garcia Marquezs Love in the Time of Cholera :: Essays Papers

Gabriel Garcia Marquez's Love in the Time of Cholera Gabriel Garcia Marquez, author of Love in the Time of Cholera, depicts his characters by having them act in certain ways, in ways of love and care towards others. Each character acts certain ways to certain people, either to gain respect, love, friendship or hatred. Marquez’s character Florentino Ariza, is desperately in love with Fermina Daza, a beautiful young lady (early in the novel), who promises him her hand in marriage then breaks that promise by marrying Dr. Juvenal Urbino. Although heartbroken Ariza’s love for Fermina would still continue over many long years, thus showing how much he was in love with her. Over the years Ariza would do many things to attempt to woo Fermina back into his arms, none that would prosper. All of the acts he committed, he committed for the love he had for her. Most of the actions she would never know of, for he would never show nor tell her about such things. It seemed almost daily Marquez had Ariza writing Fermina a poem, a song or some sort of letter. Most which would never make it into her hands. Florentino Ariza’s love for Fermina Daza went beyond just loving her. He was truly IN love with her. People can love many people, but I believe that there can truly only be one person you are IN love with. Ariza would sacrifice so much throughout his life to attempt to have her attention. He would quit jobs, and move to be near her or to even just see her for a split second, like he would do when he went to the park to see her walk past. Ariza would finally work hard and become prosperous and wealthy, again trying to impress Fermina. Ariza’s love went beyond the childish love that most of us have endured. He waited fifty-one years to be with the woman that he considered his soul mate. This truly shows a great deal of self-determination and love for another human.

The Hunters: Phantom Chapter 19

â€Å"Honestly, Elena,† Aunt Judith said, shaking her head as she adjusted the car's rearview mirror. â€Å"I don't know why these kinds of things always seem to happen to you, but you find yourself in the strangest situations.† â€Å"Tel me about it,† Elena said, slumping down in the passenger seat of her aunt's car and resting her head in her hands. â€Å"Thank you for picking me up, Aunt Judith. I just felt too shaky to drive after being at the hospital with Caleb and everything.† She swal owed. â€Å"I'm sorry I missed Margaret's dance recital after al .† Aunt Judith patted Elena's knee with one cool hand without taking her eyes off the road. â€Å"I told Margaret that Caleb got hurt and you had to take care of him. She understood. Right now I'm worried about you. It must have been a shock to find him like that, especial y when you realized it was someone you knew. What exactly happened?† Elena shrugged and repeated the lie she'd told the police. â€Å"I just found him lying there when I went to visit Mom and Dad.† Elena cleared her throat before continuing. â€Å"The hospital's keeping him for a couple of days. They think he's got a bad concussion and they want to watch and make sure his brain doesn't swel . He woke up a little bit in the ambulance but was real y groggy and didn't remember what had happened.† Which was lucky, Elena thought. What if he'd said he was attacked by Elena Gilbert's boyfriend, who had something weird going on with his teeth? What if he'd said her boyfriend was a monster? It would be last fal al over again. Aunt Judith frowned sympathetical y and shook her head. â€Å"Wel , Caleb's lucky you came along. He could have been lying there for days before anyone went looking for him.† â€Å"Yeah, lucky,† said Elena hol owly. She rol ed the bottom of her T-shirt between her fingers and was startled to realize she stil had her bathing suit on under her clothes. The picnic that afternoon seemed like it had taken place a mil ion years ago. Then something Aunt Judith said struck her. â€Å"What do you mean, he could have been lying there for days before anyone looked for him? What about his aunt and uncle?† â€Å"I tried cal ing them after you cal ed me, but it seems that Caleb's been fending for himself for quite a while. When I reached them, they were out of town on vacation, and frankly they didn't seem like they were too concerned about their nephew, even when I told them what had happened.† She sighed heavily. â€Å"I'l go visit him tomorrow and bring him some of the flowers from our garden he's been working so hard on. He'l like that.† â€Å"Huh,† said Elena slowly. â€Å"I thought he told me he came here to stay with his aunt and uncle because they were so upset about Tyler being missing.† â€Å"Maybe so,† Aunt Judith said dryly, â€Å"but the Smal woods seem to be doing pretty wel now. They said that in their opinion, Tyler wil come home when he's good and ready. That boy was always a little out of control. It sounds like Caleb is more worried about Tyler than they are.† She pul ed into the driveway of their house, and Elena fol owed her inside to where Robert was reading his newspaper at the kitchen table. â€Å"Elena, you look exhausted,† he said, folding the paper and looking up at her in concern. â€Å"Are you al right?† â€Å"I'm okay,† she said numbly. â€Å"It's just been a long day.† She thought she had never made more of an understatement in her life. â€Å"Wel , Margaret's gone to bed, but we saved you some dinner,† Aunt Judith said, making a move toward the refrigerator. â€Å"It's a chicken casserole, and there's some salad. You must be starving.† But suddenly Elena felt sick. She'd been suppressing al her feelings about Stefan and his attack on Caleb, keeping the images tamped down so she could get on with the business of dealing with the police and the staff at the hospital and her own family. But she was tired and her hands were shaking. She knew that she couldn't keep everything under control for much longer. â€Å"I don't want anything,† she said, backing away. â€Å"I can't†¦ I'm not hungry, Aunt Judith. Thank you, though. I just want to take a bath and go to bed.† She turned and hurried out of the kitchen. â€Å"Elena! You have to eat something,† she heard Aunt Judith cry exasperatedly behind her as she hurried up the stairs. The solid-sounding murmur of Robert's voice broke in: â€Å"Judith, let her go.† Elena ducked into the bathroom and closed the door behind her. She and Margaret shared the hal bathroom, and she busied herself with emptying Margaret's bath toys from the tub, keeping her mind careful y blank: a pink rubber ducky, a pirate ship, a stack of gaily colored plastic cups. A goofily smiling purple seahorse looked up at her with painted blue eyes. Once the tub was empty, Elena ran the water as hot as she could stand and poured in a generous dol op of apricot-scented bubble bath from a bottle that promised to soothe her spirit while rejuvenating her skin. Soothing and rejuvenating sounded good, although Elena had her doubts about how much she could reasonably expect from a bottle of bubble bath. When the tub was ful and frothy with a thick layer of bubbles, Elena quickly undressed and stepped into the steaming water. It stung at first, but she eased herself in bit by bit, gradual y getting accustomed to the temperature. Once she was comfortable, she lay back in the water, her hair floating out like a mermaid's, the sounds of the house muffled by the water over her ears, and let the thoughts she'd been avoiding come at last. Tears overflowed her eyes and trickled down her cheeks to join the bathwater. She had believed that everything was going to be normal now that they were back home, that things were going to be good again. When she and her friends had gotten the Guardians to send them back and to change things, to reverse the deaths, to fix the broken, to make everything the way it would have been if nothing dangerous had touched the little town of Fel ‘s Church, she had thought that it would make her life simple and easy. She would have her family, her friends, her Stefan. But it wasn't going to work, was it? It wasn't ever going to be that way, not for Elena. As soon as she'd come back to town, the very first day she'd stepped outside into the sunshine of a Fel ‘s Church summer, something dark and evil and supernatural had started stalking her and her friends. And as for Stefan†¦ God†¦ Stefan. What was happening to him? When she closed her eyes, she saw Caleb flying through the air and heard that horrible, final-sounding crack that Caleb's head had made as it connected with the marble of the mausoleum. What if Caleb never ful y recovered? What if this cute, innocent guy, this guy whose parents had died and left him like hers had died and left her, was broken forever because of Stefan? Stefan. How had he become the kind of person who could do something like that? Stefan, who felt guilty about the animals he took blood from, the doves and rabbits and deer of the forest. The Stefan who she knew at the deepest level of her soul, who she thought kept nothing from her – that Stefan would never have harmed a human being like that. Elena lay in the bathtub until the water got cold and her tears had stopped. Then she got out, drained the tub, dried her hair, brushed her teeth, put on a nightgown, cal ed good night to Aunt Judith and Robert, and climbed into bed. She did not want to write in her diary. Not tonight. She switched off the light and lay flat on her back, staring into the darkness – the same blackness, she thought, as Damon's eyes. Damon had been a monster, she knew – he had kil ed, although not as blithely as he pretended; he had manipulated people and enjoyed it; he had haunted and hated Stefan for hundreds of years – but she had also seen the lost little boy he kept locked inside him. He had loved her, she had loved him, and he had died. And she loved Stefan. Desperately, devotedly, undeniably. She loved the sincerity in his eyes, his pride, his courtly manners, his honor, and his intel igence. She loved that he had rejected the monster that lurked inside him, the one that had driven so many vampires to terrible acts. She loved the sorrow he held – for his past, for his hatred and jealousy of Damon, for the terrible things he had seen. And she loved the hope that always sprang up in him, the strength of wil Stefan possessed that al owed him to keep fighting back the darkness. Beyond al that, she loved Stefan. But she was afraid. She had thought she knew him inside and out, that she could see clear through to the innermost reaches of his soul. That wasn't true, not anymore. Not since the Guardians had stripped her powers, severing their psychic connection and reverting her back to a normal, human girl. Elena rol ed over and buried her face in the pil ow. She knew the truth now. No matter what the Guardians had done for her, she would never be a normal girl. Her life would never be simple. Tragedy and horror would fol ow her forever. In the end, there was nothing Elena could do to change her destiny.

Corporate Culture and Its Influence on the Development

â€Å"CORPORATE CULTURE AND ITS INFLUENCES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT CONSULTANCY AND BUSINESS SOLUTION JOINT STOCK COMPANY† INTRODUCTION ************ 1. Rationale of the study The term â€Å"Corporate culture† has appeared in the world and become a hot topic of many researches since the late 20th century. When the business environment faces a number of unpredictable changes and challenges resulting from integrity process and economic crisis, enterprises from any size and any country must recognize the important role of corporate culture to their survival.However, corporate culture is truly concerned only in big groups and corporations and some medium-size companies. In Vietnam, the number of enterprises that have a proper strategy to develop their own culture is nearly insignificant. It is the fact that each company has its own culture may be without recognizing and controlling it. In the simplest way we can understand corporate culture as the environment within a company in which all staff and workers communicate and work together.Hence, if we pay a certain attention, we can easily see that corporate culture has a strong affect on the cooperation between all employees, the productivity in particular and the development of the company in general. Moreover, in consulting companies, the reputation plays a key role in the company development for it influences the number of customers trusting in and using their consulting service. However, the reputation of a company is contributed from the professionalism that is reflected through the working environment or, in other word, the corporate culture of the company.Therefore, it is necessary to study corporate culture and its influences in real consulting companies in Vietnam like Management consultancy and business solution Joint stock Company. In conclusion, such researches about corporate culture like the one being conducting in this study somehow will be highly appreciated by businesses. Especia lly in 2013, the economic outlook is considered to be worse than that in 2012. That is the reason why each company has to find out a developing strategy which can make them outstanding from others.Therefore I would like to choose â€Å"Corporate culture and its influences on the development of Management consultancy and business solution Joint stock Company† as my thesis in this study for its huge value and meaning to our economy. 2. Aims of the study The primary aim of this research is to study about the corporate culture of MC&BS JSC and its impacts on the development of the company. Then the author will give some recommendations with the hope that they can help MC&BS JSC find out their comprehensive strategy for further development. 3. Scope of the studyBecause of the limitation of time, this research will not cover all components of the corporate culture. It will just analyze some important and prominent factors which have significant effects (both positive and negative) on the development of MC&BS JSC. More importantly, the research does not look at the corporate culture of MC&BS JSC from the foundation up to now but in the two recent years (in 2011 and in 2012) for the reason that when the economic shows a sign of downturn corporate culture becomes more and more meaningful to the lifespan of its owner. 4. MethodologyData analysis is the most frequently applied method in the study. Besides, the author also conducts surveys by using questionnaires in order to get more information. In concrete, in the first stage lasting two weeks, the researcher collects data from various sources: media, employees and internal files†¦Then, the researcher carries out some surveys to have more specific and precise information in two later weeks. Lastly, in the four following weeks, data analysis method will be adopted to produce final conclusions. 5. Organization of the study The study is divided into three parts:The first part is the introduction dealing with th e rationale, aims, scope, method, organization and significance of the study. The second part is the main part with three chapters: * Chapter 1 is the literature review which provides readers a general review of what corporate culture is, its components, and how it affects the company development. * Chapter 2 refers to the research methodologies. This means that it will describes in detail sources of data, methods applied in the research and their progresses as well as their outputs. * Chapter 3 is the main part of the study which consists of some discussions.This chapter will point out strengths and weaknesses of the current corporate culture in MC&BS JSC. Then, the author will suggest some actions that could be done in MC&BS JSC in order for them to develop a proper corporate culture. The last part is the conclusion that summarizes the content of the paper and gives some suggestions for further study. 6. Significance It is hoped that this research will be a helpful reference paper for the management of MC&BS JSC in specific and for businesses in general to build up their most appropriate corporate culture. Table of Contents INTRODUCTION 1.Rationale of the study1 2. Aims of the study2 3. Scope of the study2 4. Methodology3 5. Organization of the study3 6. Significance4 CHAPTER 1: LITARATURE REVIEW 1. 1 Definition of corporate culture 1. 2 Components of corporate culture 1. 1. 1 Structure and roles 1. 1. 2 Espoused mission and goals 1. 1. 3 Rules, regulations and procedures 1. 1. 4 Formal codes of behavior 1. 1. 5 Informal codes of behavior 1. 3 Influences of corporate culture on the development of a company 1. 1. 1 Influences of a positive culture 1. 1. 2 Influences of a neutral culture 1. 1. 3 Influences of a negative culture . 4 Assessment of a company culture and phases to develop the desired one 1. 1. 1 Criteria to assess a company culture 1. 1. 2 Phases to develop the desired corporate culture CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2. 1 Study of structure in MC &BS JSC 2. 2 Study of the company rules, regulations and procedures 2. 3 Study of the interactions between management and employees and between employees themselves CHAPTER 3: DISCUSION 3. 1 Strengths of MC&BS JSC’s corporate culture 3. 2 Weaknesses of MC&BS JSC’s corporate culture 3. 3 Recommendations to improve the company’s corporate culture

AIDS in the World

AIDS is the fast becoming and the worst human disease disaster the world has ever seen. It is clear that in the next ten to fifteen years, AIDS will claim more lives than any other epidemic. As a matter of fact, every year and a half, it claims more human lives than the Holocaust. Nothing can be compared to the drag that AIDS has caused to human life.There is just no human suffering and devastation as worst as it is. In the year 2002, there have already been 28 million recorded deaths due to AIDS and that is only the paltry beginning. The United Nations Security Council has labeled AIDS as a global security threat.According to UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, terrorism is not the most serious problem faced by the world today, but the AIDS epidemic. It is more than anything else destabilizing the entire planet (Hunter 2003).History of AIDSThe Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome or commonly known as AIDS was first observed in 1981. When it was first observed, it gained little attention as an infectious disease among experts. Accordingly, the first report was by Dr. Michael Gottlieb from the University of California Los Angeles. It was nothing from the AIDS that we know today. He described it as a rare form of pneumonia among homosexual men.At the same time, there were also other reports referring to the same disease saying it was a rare kind of cancer (Conner et al 2007). Furthermore, the most mainstream case would be what happened in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention where they publish an article entitled â€Å"Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report†.In this article, experts described the case reports of five young men at three different hospitals in Los Angeles. All five of them were sexually active and gay. Also, all five of them are suffering from a lung disease.Furthermore, there were also case reports on 26 young homosexual men from New York and California that were diagnosed with Kaposi Sarcoma that was on the extreme level accompanied w ith skin and mucous membrane lesion.It is observed that most of the victims were homosexual men so scientists asked what practices the homosexual community is engaged in that made them contract the disease. They postulate that a drug called amyl nitrate used by homosexuals to increase sexual pleasure may be the culprit.There is also a theory that there are certain organisms in the homosexual body that caused the disease. By 1983, aside from the United States, there were already 16 countries that reported AIDS cases alongside more than 1000 Americans that were positively diagnosed (Weeks and Alcamo 2006).This situation is often compared to that of the story of the six blind men and the elephants that is familiar to all of us as children. The elephant was the disease and the six blind men were the scientists and doctors that were grappling with its emergence.They still do not have a clear idea what AIDS is, so they were treating the epidemic piecemeal. What physicians observed was tha t patient’s immune system was literally suppressed but they do not have any idea it was the very cause of the disease. Before 1984, the situation worsened.There were no clear definition for AIDS, no test available to affirm the diagnosis, and certainly no cure was in sight (Weeks and Alcamo 2006).Despite the pessimisms among the people, researchers were beginning to unravel the mysteries of the disease that soon they call AIDS.   The observed symptoms were then later on labeled as AIDS or Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome mainly because the symptoms were consistent with damage to the immune system among healthy people.Furthermore, it was also learned that the disease was not congenital nor was it inherited but acquired from an infection of a virus. As of the present, the disease has become a prominent fixture in everyday language as its common name AIDS (Conner et al 2007).Basic research on AIDS was primarily done in the United States by two of the leading governmental in stitutions: the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and the National Institute of Health (NIH). There were also studies conducted in Western Europe by Pasteur Institute.The Pasteur Institute was famous for their specialization in virology because it started out as center to combat rabies, the most horrible of all viral diseases. Prior to this, scientists in this institute has also done other viral discoveries such as that of Constantin Levadati who discovered the polio virus, Amedee Morrel who studied animal onco-viruses, and Felix d’Herelle who discovered bacteriophage.They are part of the team who had will soon develop the field of molecular biology and soon understand the biological strategy of the AIDS virus (Grmek et al 1993).The Pasteur virologists first encountered AIDS during a controversy about the Institute’s production of hepatitis-B vaccine. The process required a massive amount of human plasma. In 1981, they purchased around 2, 500 liters of plasma from the United States blood banks.A third of these were mixed to European plasma in order for them to prepare vaccine. When the product was tested to the chimpanzees, one of them developed hepatitis, and another died out of arbovirus infection (Grmek et al 1993).In September 1982, Jacques Leibowitch, a physician working at the Raymond Poincare Hospital in Paris had been convinced that AIDS is caused by an exotic virus of African origin that affected T4-cells transmitted by blood.The description of the virus was similar to that of HTLV retrovirus. He gave a seminar at Cochin hospital and informed the French task force about it. The French Task Force was pretty much convinced that the retrovirus might be the probable cause of AIDS. They were also –persuaded that it could be transmitted through blood (Grmek et al 1993).Other scientists believe the agent came from a virus that causes African swine fever since the same virus can result to immune suppression of pigs. Others believed that i t was cause by a slow virus, one that is multiplying at an extreme low rate that it only affects and manifests itself in the body after a few years.Another group believes that the agent is a vital escapee from a genetic engineering laboratory. There was also speculation that says that it came from a failed biological war against Cuba (Grmek et al 1993).In the United States, the group of Robert C. Gallo identified a virus in the blood of 48 patients with virus. They named the virus HTVL-III. They have published their works on the Science. In a few months that followed, there has already been a rivalry between the American and French experts each claiming that they were the first one who isolated the virus.They contested that they should be one who’ll receive international awards, research grants, and millions and billions of dollar patent rights. Until, they have settled after some time that the virus that they have been examining were of the same type. The United States for i ts part have a